NAME

exp, expf, expm1, expm1f, log, logf, log2, log2f, log10, log10f, log1p, log1pf, pow, powf - exponential, logarithm, power functions

LIBRARY

Math Library (libm, -lm)

SYNOPSIS



double exp(double x)

float expf(float x)

double expm1(double x)

float expm1f(float x)

double log(double x)

float logf(float x)

double log2(double x)

float log2f(float x)

double log10(double x)

float log10f(float x)

double log1p(double x)

float log1pf(float x)

double pow(double x, double y)

float powf(float x, float y)

DESCRIPTION

The exp() function computes the exponential value of the given argument x.

The expm1() function computes the value exp(x)-1 accurately even for tiny argument x.

The log() function computes the value of the natural logarithm of argument x.

The log10() function computes the value of the logarithm of argument x to base 10.

The log1p() function computes the value of log(1+x) accurately even for tiny argument x.

The log2() and the log2f() functions compute the value of the logarithm of argument x to base 2.

The pow() computes the value of x to the exponent y.

RETURN VALUES

These functions will return the appropriate computation unless an error occurs or an argument is out of range. The functions exp(), expm1() and pow() detect if the computed value will overflow, set the global variable errno to ERANGE and cause a reserved operand fault on a VAX. The function pow(x, y) checks to see if x < 0 and y is not an integer, in the event this is true, the global variable errno is set to EDOM and on the VAX generate a reserved operand fault. On a VAX, errno is set to EDOM and the reserved operand is returned by log unless x > 0, by log1p() unless x > -1.

ERRORS

exp(x), log(x), expm1(x) and log1p(x) are accurate to within an ulp, and log10(x) to within about 2 ulps; an ulp is one Unit in the Last Place. The error in pow(x, y) is below about 2 ulps when its magnitude is moderate, but increases as pow(x, y) approaches the over/underflow thresholds until almost as many bits could be lost as are occupied by the floating-point format's exponent field; that is 8 bits for VAX D and 11 bits for IEEE 754 Double. No such drastic loss has been exposed by testing; the worst errors observed have been below 20 ulps for VAX D, 300 ulps for IEEE 754 Double. Moderate values of pow() are accurate enough that pow(integer, integer) is exact until it is bigger than 2**56 on a VAX, 2**53 for IEEE 754.

NOTES

The functions exp(x)-1 and log(1+x) are called expm1 and logp1 in BASIC on the Hewlett-Packard HP-71B and APPLE Macintosh, EXP1 and LN1 in Pascal, exp1 and log1 in C on APPLE Macintoshes, where they have been provided to make sure financial calculations of ((1+x)**n-1)/x, namely expm1(n*log1p(x))/x, will be accurate when x is tiny. They also provide accurate inverse hyperbolic functions.

The function pow(x, 0) returns x**0 = 1 for all x including x = 0, Infinity (not found on a VAX), and NaN (the reserved operand on a VAX). Previous implementations of pow may have defined x**0 to be undefined in some or all of these cases. Here are reasons for returning x**0 = 1 always:

  1. Any program that already tests whether x is zero (or infinite or ) before computing x**0 cannot care whether 0**0 = 1 or not. Any program that depends upon 0**0 to be invalid is dubious anyway since that expression's meaning and, if invalid, its consequences vary from one computer system to another.

  2. Some Algebra texts (e.g. Sigler's) define x**0 = 1 for all x, including x = 0. This is compatible with the convention that accepts a[0] as the value of polynomial
    p(x) = a[0]*x**0 + a[1]*x**1 + a[2]*x**2 +...+ a[n]*x**n
    

    at x = 0 rather than reject a[0]*0**0 as invalid.

  3. Analysts will accept 0**0 = 1 despite that x**y can approach anything or nothing as x and y approach 0 independently. The reason for setting 0**0 = 1 anyway is this:
    If x(z) and y(z) are
    any
    functions analytic (expandable
    in power series) in z around z = 0, and if there
    x(0) = y(0) = 0, then x(z)**y(z) gt; 1 as z gt; 0.
    

  4. If 0**0 = 1, then infinity**0 = 1/0**0 = 1 too; and then **0 = 1 too because x**0 = 1 for all finite and infinite x, i.e., independently of x.

SEE ALSO

math(3)

STANDARDS

The exp(), log(), log10() and pow() functions conform to ANSI X3.159-1989 (``ANSI C89'') .

HISTORY

A exp(), log() and pow() functions appeared in Version 6 AT&T UNIX. A log10() function appeared in Version 7 AT&T UNIX. The log1p() and expm1() functions appeared in 4.3BSD.